EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

  

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Educational research is simply the scholarly application of scientific method in finding solutions to a particular problem in the field of education, in his contribution, Ali (1984) defined educational research as the systematic attempt to delineate and investigate significant problems involved in or related to teaching and learning in and outside the school settings with intent of offering useful suggestions on how to solve such problems. In summary, educational research is a systematic approach to providing solutions to identified educational problems. It therefore involves the application of scientific method in finding solutions to educational problems. By and large, the various terminologies have been defined one way or another.

Before any research in the field of education can be said to be scientific in nature. It must possess certain characteristics such as:

Purpose Based classification

Purpose Based Classification of Research

         Educational research is conducted for different purposes. These are basic or fundamental research, applied research, action research, research and development, and evaluation research.

Basic Research: this type of research is concerned with advancement of knowledge. It is otherwise called Fundamental Research and is concerned with producing results or findings which would lead to the development of theories. It is Basic research is not concerned with the usefulness of the findings to practical situations. But rather its interest in building theories which would lead to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field of study.

Applied Research: this classification of research is concerned with the usefulness of ideas or theories to practical situations. It is therefore interested in the workability or usefulness of ideas or theories to practical situation. Applied research does not lead to theory of a given theory to practical situations.

Action Research: Applied research is directed towards solving specific educational problems at the classroom level. This type of research is usually undertaken by either a teacher or a group of teachers in school. A teacher may notice that a particular student is usually keeping to himself and not mixing freely with the other students or that some students find it difficult to understand a particular topic or subject. If the teacher sets out to find the cause (s) of these problems. He is carrying out what is called action research. Action research is an important tool in the hands of a teacher who wants to be effective at his/her duty post.

Research and Development: this is a relatively new type of research which is different from most other educational researches. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)programmes aims at developing and testing more efficacious educational products. These products are developed and trial tested in the field to ensure their effectiveness. R & D programmes are very recent and, because of that, appears to be scanty in the nations educational system. Although, costly and time demanding, research and development programmes provide valuable means of achieving educational improvements. They ensure that educational products in use are of proven quality most products are simply been introduced into the system without first ascertaining their efficacy or otherwise. Decisions relating to the value or worth of educational materials, method and programmes based on empirical data. It is a systematic process o collecting pertinent data on the basis upon which decisions could be made about an individual, a programme. Material or methods Evaluation research often provides useful means in bringing about necessary medications in the promme or system such modifications lead to greater effectiveness and efficiency in the system.

Method based classification

This classification of educational research is suggested in terms of method employed in the research activity. In this regard. Educational research is classified according to method includes:

1. Historical research
2. Survey research
3. Case study
4. Casual-comparative or ex-post facto research
5. Experimental

HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN (HISTORIGRAPHY)

This is a systematized and objective enquiry into events, development and experience of the past. Although this design recent times , come to find useful applications in the investigation of certain types of educational problems, such as tracing the development of certain programmes in education or bringing to limelight the contributions of notable figure and/or in the development of education.

        In this type of study data collection is involved. The data collected are subjects to evaluation so as to  determine their validity or otherwise. Thereafter, some logical conclusions are draw based on a proper synthesis and interpretation of the data.

     Historical research differs from other forms of research in the sense that it is always concerned with the past and calls for a more difficult types of data interpretation. It is however, a very useful and important form of research in education have some historical roots. A proper grasp of these historical roots will not only help us in shaping them to suit the present and the future. It can also help us to appreciate the historical context of great educationists and their theories and also to uncover the works of perhaps some “hidden” educational giant in our setting.

Example of historical studies include:

1. The development of special education in Nigeria
2. The university of Nigeria in the first 25 years of existence.
3. The contributions of Alvan Ikoku to the development of Nigerian education.

Data for historical research are obtained from two main sources primary and secondary source. Wherever primary sources are available use of secondary sources would be considered a serious error for the obvious reason that secondary sources are usually very susceptible to distortion and hence may not be as authentic as the primary sources. In evaluating the data collected, two forms of criticism external and internal are employed.

       External criticism seeks to establish the authenticity of the data. It weeks answers to such questions as: was the report or relic competent and objective?

         Internal criticism,on the hand, is concerned with the accuracy of the content of the source. Are the statements accurate representations of historical facts? Did the author have any motives blades or limitation which could have led to misrepresentations of historical facts.

              This process of evaluation is particularly important in historical research since historical research depends usually on data observed and recorded by someone else. Although, very much like the review of literature which accompanies other forms of research, historical research involves. More than an ordinary review of the literature. It is more extensive and intensive, including more sources pu published and unpublished old and recent.

SURVEY RESEARCH

              Another type of research you can do is survey research, characteristics of groups of individuals, object, events or situations are investigated. For example, you may be interested in finding out about the performance of students in examination in q local government, state or country. The findings you make will apply to pupils in the particular area you Studied. However, it'll not be possible to involve all the pupils in that area, city, if state.

        So you collect from a sample of the individuals, objects, event or situations in the area. This sample you selected should be an adequate representative of the totally of the individuals, objects, event and situations in general, the larger the size of the sample, the more confidence one can have in the results of the research. In thus type of research, data are collected by different methods. These include the use of observation, tests questionnaires, and interview. You will use some statistical methods to test whether the assumption you made are correct or not.

        There are different types of survey research. These include opinion survey, developmental survey, differential survey and descriptive survey. Opinion survey is a kind of study in which you try to find out the feelings of pupils or individuals about something for example, you may want to know the views of primary science. Developmental survey has to do with investigating the changes that could be noticeable in an individual over a certain period of time. You may be interested in studying the development of language skills among children. You may follow a particular child through the first ten years of his life. During this period you record all your your observations about this child and draw necessary conclusions about language development in children in the first ten years of age. This type of development survey is called longitudinal survey on the other hand, to shorten the time period, you may select children to represent each of the age ranges from one year to ten years and study them simultaneously. From the observations made of these children of different age ranges you draw your conclusion about language development in children in the first ten years. This type of developmental survey is called cross sectional survey. Differential survey on the other hand means survey carried out with the aim of showing differences between groups of people. The difference can be in intelligent between boys and girls. Or difference between educated and uneducated parents in their attitudes to mode in education. Descriptive survey are those studies which aim at collecting data on, and describing in a systematic manner. The characteristics, features or fact about a given population. These studies are only interested In describing certain variable in relation to the population.

        Once importance of survey re search lies in the possibility of applying. There are derived from it to a large section of the population. There are also a wide range ' of tests and questionnaires available that you can easily use in your research. Such studies meet the requirement if scientific research of objectivity especially where standard tests or questionnaires are used. This is because the data collected are analyzed with appropriate statistical techniques before conclusions are reached.

          A possible problem with this type of research is that if the sample taken is not typical of the population, then the results will not be applicable to the entire population. Some of the individuals can' also spoil the data deliberately giving wrong answers or refusing to express their real feelings. Teachers should be aware of these possible pitfalls while conducting survey research or making use if result from survey studies.

CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN

         The case study is an intensive study geared towards a thorough understanding of a given social unit. The social unit may be an individual, a group of an individuals, a community or an institution. The number of units studied in limited while the number of variables and situations under which they are studied are diversified. Hence, they usually provide a thorough in depth, comprehensive and well ordered information concerning the social unit in question. In this respect, case studies differ for survey (which seek. to study several units over limited number of variables and situations) terms of the degree of intensity and depth of investigation.

          Case studies employ a variety of data gathering techniques such as questionnaire observation, interview, test etc. Only one or a combination of these could be employed, in any one case study depending on the objectives of the study. Case studies are useful in providing relevant background information which may give rise to more extensive investigations. In addition. They usually provide specific instances for testing or validating earlier findings or important theories. At the same time it is not too expensive.

        Case studies are however of limited generalizability. Only a single unit or very GE units are involved in case studies and as such the findings cannot be generalized to the population. They are time consuming since they often demand the direct participation of the researcher in collecting certain critical information from the unit(s). Again, some element of bias may be involved in the selection of the unit(s). To be studied. On the basis of his preconceived ideas and convenience. And not on the basis of the typically of the unit(s). in relation to the population. This is bound to interfere with the data he collects and the interpretation of such data.

CASUAL COMPARATIVE OR EXPOST-FACTO RESEARCH DESIGN

this type of study is similar to experimental study in the sense that it also seek to establish cause effect relationships but differs from it in that the researcher usually has no control over the variables of interest and therefore cannot manipulate them. Indeed, the researcher only attempts to link some already existing effect or observation to some variable (s) as causative agents. The research finds that the subjects are already assigned to or classified. Into the various levels of the variable whose effects are being investigated and he cannot alter this.

         Consider, for instance, these studies: "The Influence of gender on student performance in school certificate Examination in Nigeria" or "The effect of location on students attitude toward mathematics". Both fall under this design. In these studies mentioned, the students have already been assigned to the appropriate levels of gender (male and female) or location. He simply met the subject already assigned to the appropriate levels of the variables whose effects are being investigated. 

         As in the above example, the effects of the variables, gender and location (I.e the difference in the performance of male and female students in school certificate examination and the difference in the attitudes of urban, semi- urban and rural students towards mathematics) were already in existence at the time of the study. in other words, data are collected after the event or phenomenon under investigation has taken place hence the name ex-post facto. In the same manner, the name casual comparative derived from the fact that is this type of study, groups differentiated in terms of some independent variables are compared on a given dependent variable. Difference in the dependent variable across the group are attributed to the independent variable. 

         The design is very appropriate where it is not possible for the researcher to directly manipulate the independent variable. In some circumstances, it may be uneconomical or practical impossible for manipulate certain variable. And the researcher has to resort to this type of design instead of attempting an experimental study. Ex-post facto designs, yield useful preliminary information regarding the possible causes of some events on the basis of which confirmatory studies could be undertaken using experimental design. Of course, they are less time consuming and with some element of control and improved statistical analysis, valid results could be approached. 

          Some limitations are evident in this design. It does not allow for the control of the independent variables. The researcher has no control over the variables influencing the results. In the situation, several competing variables could be presented a'd unless he is sure that these do not exert any influence on the result, his conclusions may be questionable. It may even be that the actual causative variable was not in nudes in the study.

            Interpretation of findings usually pose a problem in this type of study. Assuming in a study that investigated the influence of socio-Economics status (S.E.S) on Ademic Achievement. It was found that those from high S.E.S achieved more than those from low S.E.S. Do we interpret this finding to mean that "S.E.S." causes "academic achievement" in this context, none of these interpretations seems plausible. This is very often the case with the interpretation of data associated with this design. Thus problem arose because, the two variables related does not necessary imply that one causes the other, it may be that both are related to a third variable which may not be known. Even where one is the cause of the other, it may not be easy to DA with this design which one causes the other.

             Lastly, this kind if design usually gives rise to classification errors. When we classify the subjects into high S.E.S. and Low S.E.S or into urban, semi-urban and rural locations some errors are bound to occur because such classifications are neither sufficiently precise nor rigid to exclude classification error.

 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

               The main thrust of experimental design is to establish cause and effect relationships. It is the most powerful and valid design which can be used to identify confidently the cause of any given event. In an experimental study, one or more independent variable (s) is/are manipulated by the experimenter (researcher) under controlled conditions and its/their effect(s) observed. This usually involves exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment Condition and its/their effect(s) observed. This usually involves exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and observing the difference(s) between this/these group(s) and one or more control grumps to which the treatment was not administered. An experiment must therefore in involve experimental or treatment group (s) and control group(s) the treatment or experimental group is the group to which the treatment was administered. The treatment is the variable being manipulated. The effect of the treatment variable is also called the dependent variable or the criterion variable.

            There is another group of variable in experimental studies called extraneous. Variables. They are independent variables which could exert some influences over the dependent variable but are not themselves being studies. They, therefore, have to be checked or controlled, otherwise, they will confound the effects of the experiment treatment.

         As essential and indispensable feature of experimental design is the use of control. The term control can be applied in two sense: first, the use of control groups. A control group is one to which the experimental treatment was not administered. Hence, it usually provides the baseline against which to compare the effect of the experimental treatment experimental group (those receiving it). This is valid on the condition that the experimental and control groups are identical In all other respects but differ only in terms of the treatment variable. To achieve this condition there out not to be any initial differences between the groups in other words the influence of all other variables except the treatment variable on the two groups should either be zero or equal.

           The second sense in which the term control is applied in experimental study is in handling or checking the influence of the extraneous variables. The fact that no experimental study can achieve its objective, (I.e. to draw causal inferences) unless the extraneous variables is to held them constant and allow only the experimental treatment to very. For instance, in an experimental to determine the relative efficacy of a new instructional is the "teacher" if one teacher taught the control group with the observed difference between the experimental and control groups are due to the experimental treatment or difference in the effectiveness of the two teacher. To control this extraneous variable, the teacher variable can be kept constant by allowing only one teacher to teach each groups, or using two teachers who are equated in, terms of teaching effectiveness. if this were possible. 

        Another form of control involves permitting the extraneous variables to vary and later through appropriate statistical manipulation determining their effect and that of the main treatment variable.

         The experimental design, therefore, allows for the control of Relevant variable while permitting the examination of the effect of some definite variable, Hence it is very powerful for the detection of cause effect relationships.

However, it tends to be highly contrived and artificial. Under natural conditions, an individual's behavior is influenced by a lot of variable acting on him. So, what we observe under the restrictive contrived and artificial setting of an experimental may not depict the actual behavior of the individual in real life situation which is unrestricted un contrived and natural.

ROLES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

          in the field of education, research plays important role as is the case in other disciplines. Some of the roles which educational research plays include:

A. Improvement of educational practice

Research leads to better and improved practices in education Result of educational research reveal those instructional materials. Techniques and methods that prove to be more effective and at the same time indict those that seem to be ineffective. The mass of improved instructional materials and techniques made possible through research, has been a source of enhanced learning improvements in curriculum designing, classroom management and control, instructional supervision, management of all sorts of deviant student behaviors, handling of exceptional children as well as evaluation practice, have all been made possible through educational research.

B. Advancement of Knowledge - Knowledge Explosion.

         Through research the frontiers of Knowledge in the discipline of education are extended. Much of human knowledge today is drawn from conclusions of scientific researches accumulated over the years. Each scientific investigation produces some results which are considered tentative. As Subsequent findings lend support to these, the acceptability or validity of such result increases. It thus becomes accepted as part of human knowledge with time and increasing number of supporting evidence gamed in other areas. In this way, knowledge in a particular field continues to build up and expand as society changes.

C. Increasing understanding of educational phenomena

Research education plays a vital role In increasing awareness and understanding of educational phenomena. Findings from educational researches leads to the development and refinement of educational theories. These theories help in explaining certain educational phenomena which otherwise may not have been understand in the past. Example of such concepts are continuous assessment, ability streaming, democratic administrative styles etc. Research has similarly increased ones understanding of the use of appropriate pedagogical skills and methods. Good classroom organization and management techniques, specific teacher behaviors which make for effectiveness as well as the efficacy of various techniques off counseling and behavior modification. In fact, educational research has increased ones understanding of every facet of life to the extent that one can fairly explain most of our actions as educators.

D. Providing solution to education problems

           One of the fundamental roles which an educational research plays is to help in solving education problems of course the major motivation for undertaking any research project in education is to solve an identified educational problem. Such a problem may relate to the administration of educational programmes, evaluation of instructional outcomes curriculum materials, and abnormality in the behavioral patterns of students and so on. Solving these problems helps to smooth out course of educational practice.

E. Bringing about overall development and progress

         In the long run, educational research brings about overall development and progress in the field of education. Development and progress arose as a result of advancement and then research breaks new ground which helps to bring about development and progress. Education as a discipline has continued to grow over the years in this respect.

FORMULATING RESEARCH TOPIC

         To put it in a simple way, a research topic is a phrase or expression of what the research is am about. For example, you may want to investigate why class four pupils no longer concentrate during lessons. Assuming that the school where where you teach is Government College Kaduna. In that case, you can put down your research topic as: Factors Responsible for the lack of attention during lessons among primary Four pupils of Government College Kaduna. This is the tittle that will appear on the front page of your research report when you finish. There are some qualities which a good research topic should possess. These include the following.

1. It should give a clear idea about what has been done in the work to anyone reading it. In the above example just by reading the tittle or topic, one can understand that it is about why pupils no longer pay attention during lessons. It is clear that this problem is recent in origin because the topic says so, in other words, the research is not about the usual factors that interfere with pupil's attention. Rather, it is about something peculiar to a group of students. These are class four pupils in a certain primary school. The findings will therefore be limited to all primary four pupils. A research topic should not be ambiguous. Suppose write the topic as "Research on pupil's concentration and Determination". It does not tell us what to expect in the work, but rather it is ambiguous.
2. It should be as short as possible. You should not use more words than is necessary in writing the topic of your research. For example, it will not be helpful to state the topic as "An Investigation on the factors such as the contents of Learning and the Methods of Teaching Them, and the Nature of the social Environment that have Recently Led to Lack of Attention During Lessons in Class Four of Government College Kaduna.
3. It should be measured or assessed. It will make no sense to say one's research topic is "An investigation of the Effect of Different types of Brain on Attention during Lessons". First of all, it is not clear what "type of brain" you are referring to. In addition to this, it shows no idea of how a child's "type of brain" will be determined.
4. They should be educated in nature: A topic is educational if its findings will have implications in the field of education. For instance, a topic such as, "The historical development of western religion in Ngor Okpala Local Government Area of Imo state has some educational in nature.
5. It should be significant. The topic should be one that can make valuable contribution to either the theory or practice of education. The topic should help us to explain certain events or help us to become more effective and/or efficient in carrying out certain actions. In other words, any topic that us neither theoretical or of practical significance is not a good topic. A research topic may therefore be said to be a clear phrase or expression of what is being researched upon.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

          These are question posed by the researcher and for which answers proffered would lead to the solution of the problems identified. Consider as an example, the following research project: problems in the Implementing of the New Primary Education Mathematics Curriculum in Anambra State. The following research questions could be formulated.

1. Are there enough qualified teachers for the implementation of Mathematics Curriculum available in Anabra State?
2. To what extent are the resource materials required for the implementation of Mathematics curriculum available in Anabra state?
3. How well does the method teachers use in implementing Mathematics curriculum conform with what was recommended in Anambra state?
4. Is the supervision of the implementation of this curriculum adequate?

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

• Research questions provide focus and direct attention to the major issues in the project. They determine, therefore what data to collect, how and where to collect them they should always be related to the problem at hand and represent significant and critical issues in the study.
• Although there is no precise rule on the number of research questions to be formulated, the number should neither too small as to exclude very important aspects. of the problem, nor too large as to result in an unmanageable list of research questions. As many research questions as will cover all the major issues in the work should be formulated.
• The language of the research be clear and unambiguous. Research questions should be formulated in such a way that they could be answered. Every research question included in the project should be answered. As much as possible, research questions should not be formulated in such a way as to lend themselves to only 'yes' or 'no' type of answers.

HYPOTHESES

          A hypothesis is a conjectural proposition, an informed, intelligent guess about the solution to a problem. It is an assumption or proposition whose veracity and validity is to be established. Formulation and testing of hypothesis provides the researcher with the necessary guide or direction in searching for the solution to the problem under investigation. This ensures that the researcher does not waste or dissipate all his energy in searching for the solutions anywhere and anyhow. 

        The formulation and use of appropriate hypothesis is so crucial and fundamental to the success if any research been undertaken. This is particularly so in studies seeking to establish cause and effect relationships. However, there are few situation which do not require formulating hypotheses. These situation include preliminary or exploratory investigations aimed at gaining more information about something or where the researchers has no knowledge about possible solutions to the problem. The use of hypothesis may lead to the researcher neglecting or ignoring some important aspects of the findings from his data which are not comprehensive enough. To avoid this, the researcher should endeavor to formulate a set of hypotheses which is comprehensive enough to cover all aspects of the problem.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

hypotheses could be classified in several ways. One way of classifying hypotheses is as either research hypotheses or statistical hypotheses.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

         These at postulations about the relationships, between two or more variables that are of critical interest in an effort to provide solutions of the research. Problems but not in statistical terms.

STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES

          This is a proposition about statistical population which is to be verified in the basis of data (or information) collected from a sample of that population. They express the relationship between two or more variables even though in statistical and measurable terms. The statistical parameter on which the test is to be based is specified and the variables are reduced to numerical quantities. This is the form in which hypotheses are tested, not as research hypotheses. Statistical hypotheses could be formulated in two forms as null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses.

NULL HYPOTHESES

           A null hypothesis is stated as no significant difference or no significant relationship exist between two or more variables. It could also be stated as "no significant effect" or "no significant impact"

Example of null hypotheses include:

Ho1  There is no significant difference between the mean science concept acquisition scores of the students taught with improvised materials and those taught without improvised materials.

Ho2     The  means achievement scores of the students who had prior knowledge of instructional objectives and those who did not have prior knowledge of instructional objectives.

It is in the null from that hypotheses are usually tested this null hypotheses us usually tested against what is called an alternate hypothesis.

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS.

         An alternative hypothesis is a form of hypothesis which proves otherwise that significant difference ex is between two or more variables. It specifies the condition which will hold if the null hypothesis does not hold. Below are examples of an alternative hypothesis.

H1      There is significant difference between the mean science concept acquisition scores of the students who were  taught without improvised materials.

H2.     The mean achievement scores of the students who had prior, knowledge of objectives and those who did not have prior knowledge of infrastructural objectives will differ significantly. When a null hypothesis is rejected confirmed.

FUNCTION OF HYPOTHESES

The formulation and use of hypotheses in education research help to perform the following function.

1. Provide a good and direction to the investigation. They guide the researcher in his/her search for the solution of the problems identified. This ensures that only pertinent data are collected and energy is not wasted or dissipated, unnecessarily, in the same  vein review of irrelevant literature can be avoids.
2. Sensitive and draw the attention of the researcher to the important aspects of the problem under investigation. 
3. Help the researcher to understand the problems better in all ramifications as well as to identity the methods and procedures that will be appropriate (or inappropriate) in the analysis of data.
4. Provide a framework for drawing conclusion. They provide the necessary structure for meaningful interpretation of data in relation to the problem under investigation.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESES

         Research questions and hypotheses can be obtained from the following sources:

1. Experience: what the researcher and others know about the problem under investigation.
2. Literature: From the review of literature, the researcher can obtain useful ideas relating to the possible solutions of the problems identified.
3. Theory: Through theories, hypotheses could be derived as a prices of deductive reasoning, e.g "If A is true then B will be true".
4. Previous Findings: Finding or previous studies can also serve as sources of hypotheses such findings may give rise to some new issues which have to be resolved. These issues will then form the basis for formulating pertinent hypotheses. I addition, hypotheses could be derived from deduction made from the findings of previous studies.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

A good hypothesis should have the following qualities: 

• Testable: this means that it should be such that empirical evidence relating to its validity (or otherwise) can be obtained.
• It should express statement of an expected relationship between two or more variable working with hypotheses, the interest usually is to see how two or more variables are related. A good hypothesis should therefore specify the expected relationship between the variables of interest in measurable terms.
• Plausible: Any hypothesis should be based on what is consist with reason. It should be based on what is consistent with reason. It should be seen not only to relate to the problem but also its likelihood as a solution to the problem should not be in doubt.
• Consistent with Current knowledge: Hypothesis should into contradict established knowledge. If it so does, it would appear unreasonable or implausible.
• Unambiguous; Hypothesis should be stated in clear, unambiguous and simple terms. Terms. Terms used in formulating the hypothesis should be operationally defined.

THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

          The review of related literature is an exercise in which the researcher with a good knowledge of the state of the art in the area covered, what remains to be covered what technique is to be employed in the investigation, etc. This is a very crucial aspects of any research. Any research that ignores this vital aspect, does so at the risk of duplicating previous studies, using unproductive techniques and therefore, not contributing much to the advancement of human knowledge.

SOURCES

Sources of relevant literature to be reviewed can be classified into two groups primary and secondary sources.

Primary source

Are those sources which contains a direct account of an event or phenomenon given by someone who actually observed the event or phenomenon and also objects showing actuality services as an invaluable primary source of data collection. Primary source of data can be classified into two major categories. Document and Remains.

The documents are those data recorded by an actual eye witness or participant in an event. While remains include historical objects themeselves which are available for examination.

Document include the following:

• Legislative acts, such as constitution, laws and characters.
• Decrees and edicts,
• Executive and other official records like the following

Administrative proceedings:

• Minutes of meetings no educational matters
• Reports of special committees, including recommendations for executive action
• General Orders
• Financial instructions
• approval Budge Estimates

Reports of Commission, for example Eliot or Ashby commission.

Reports of school inspections.

Reports of Educational Conferences

Log books, school-diaries, registers, prospectus and advertisements.

New notices

• Articles
• News notices
• Advertisement

Personal Materials

• Autobiographies, memos
• Letters
• Contracts, bills and deeds
• Certificates

Remains: Remains of objects showing actuality serve as an important primary source of data collection. These remains may include the following:

• School buildings and their furnishings
• Photographs of buildings, their furnishings and various educational activities.
• Type of blank form used for various record keeping aids.
• Text-books, pupils work-books, letters and other writings.

The above lists are in exhaustive. One can identify more of the sources.

           The main advantage of the primary source of data collection us that the exact information wanted is obtained. Thus terms are carefully defined so that as far as I is humanly possible, misunderstanding or ambiguity is avoided.

Secondary Sources

           These include information collected through a third party. Secondary sources are those materials which contain account of an event or phenomenon by someone who did not actually witness the event or phenomenon. The author of a secondary source material tries to collect and synthesize a pool of primary materials. In the course of do in this, he brings his own interpretations, To tho extent, one cannot be sure of how much the secondary author has altered the original or primary material.

1. Newspaper publication
2. Letters purportedly written on the focus of the study
3. Information given by one who did not witness or participate in an event.
4. The biography of a person written by another.
5. Records from administrative department or organizations.
6. Text-books
7. Reviews of research reports
8. Encyclopedias 

LIMITATIONS OF SECONDARY OF INFORMATION

• It is not always reliable
• Facts may be distorted
• There could be over exaggeration of events especially through Newspaper publications.
• The human boa always built into the writings of authors about other people. Generally you have to examine the authenticity and accuracy of both the primary and secondary sources of data before using them in your research.

NEED FOR THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

1. Understanding Previous Studies: Through the review of literature, the researcher acquires a thorough understanding of previous studies which have been carried out in the intended area. He is carried to the frontiers of knowledge in that particular area from where he can look and see the problem in its clearest perspective. From such a stand point, he is now better place to engineer his research in the direction that can contribute most in pushing this frontier further. Literature review, as well, provides the necessary foundation or theoretical framework upon which the researcher rests his work.
2. Sharpening the Research Focus: Reviewing the literature also helps in sharpening the research focus. Unless one knows what has been done in a field, what remains to be done and what can actually be done, he will have the difficulty of property delineating the scope of his research. Not properly delimiting the scope of a research topic could lead to unnecessary dissipation of the research topic.
3. Choise of method: through literature review, the researcher could identify an appropriate method for the method that had been employed in the investigation of a Simula problem. The lapses and inadequacies in the methods adopted in the previous studies and ole his eyes to better methods for investigating the problems as hand. He will Al's become obsolete or unproductive which he must avoid in his own investigation.

In these. and several other ways, the review of the literature aids the researcher in carrying out a research that will be of immense significance in terms of its contributions to the contemporary state of human knowledge.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 

First: 

      identify and List the key words associated with the topic of the study.

Second: 

     consult the preliminary sources for journal articles and text books. The key words or terms listen in step one usually facilitate the search for textbooks and journal articles using the preliminary pages.

Third:  

         Having obtained necessary bibliographical data in the preceding step, the researcher now goes to the serials section of the main library to try to locate the references (Journal or Textbooks).

Fourth:

         Read and man short notes from the available references. From your notes, it I advisable to prepare a bibliography card for each book or article. Usually start with the latest or the most recent articles. Go through the abstract first to determine the relatedness of the material to your field of study. Note-taking should be brief, focusing on the problem, purpose, procedure, results , conclusion and your own remarks or evaluation of the material. For opinion articles, only abstract or a summary will be required.

GENERAL GUIDELINES

1. Do not rely heavily on secondary source materials.
2. Avoid being in a hurry to get started on the actual project. Otherwise, you might miss some studies which contain very useful ideas that would have helped you in do in a good work.
3. Do not concentrate only on journals or textbooks in Education. Extend your review to newspapers and magazines. These usually contain pertinent and useful articles and ideas in education.
4. Exercise great care in copying out bibliographical data. Any mistaken in this respect may create some difficulty in locating the reference later on when it is needed.
5. Make your notes as brief as possible. Avoid putting Dow everything in the article. Only the important ideas need to be noted down.
6. Pay attention not only to the findings of the works you are reviewing, but also to the procedures, measure, etc, adopted in the study. These could yield valuable information to you.
7. Define the scope of your review adequately - not too narrow and not too broad. Too broad scope could lead to frustration and a haphazard job, while too narrow scope will cost the student researcher much valuable information from materials excluded.

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

          A research design is a plan or blueprint which specifies how data relating to a given problem should be collected and, analyzed. It provides the procedural outline for the conduct of an investigation.

         There is no single research design that will be suitable for investigating all education problems. However, in choosing a particular research design, therefore, the researcher must put into consideration its economy in terms of time and materials.

FUNCTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN 

       Some of the major functions accomplished by research design include

• Providing the researcher with the necessary framework or blue print for tackling a particular educational problem.
• Help delineating the research purpose/boundaries
• Acquaint the researcher with the potential problems in the execution of the study.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

           Various authors adopt classification of research designs. For our purpose, we sham classify research designs in education into the following types.

1. Historical research design or historiography
2. Survey research design
3. Casual - comparative or ex - post facto research design and 
4. Experimental research design.

TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR DATA COLLECTION