PUNCTUATION

 PUNCTUATION

Punctuation plays an important role in developing writing skills. It is very often provided that punctuation may alter the meaning of a sentence.

Note the example carefully.

"The principal," says the student, "should be expelled from the college. 

In the above example, the first sentence means that the student says the principal should be expelled from the college. It is a meaningless idea. But the second sentence tells us that the principal says student should be expelled from the college

Such is the importance of punctuation is writing.

It is, therefore, very necessary for us to study the use of punctuation marks.

Punctuation: The right use of the 'stops' in a sentence is known as punctuation.

The principal punctuation marks

1. Full stop [.]
2. Comma [.]
3. Semicolon [;]
4. Colon [:]
5. Interrogation Mark [?]
6. Exclamation mark [!]
7. Inverted commas or Quotation Mark [" "]

Let us now study each of the punctuation Marks and their proper and correct use in writing.

1. The Full Stop: It marks the longest pause.

(a) The Full Stop is used at the end of every Declarative or Imperative Sentence

Ex: Man is a social animal.

Please come here.

Don't go there.

(b) After abbreviation and initials

Ex: The U.S.A., The U.N.O., B.A., M.A., W.H.O., The P.M., The C.M., ph.D., M.P., Dr. V. K Rao.

2. Comma: It marks the shortest pause.

(a) It is used to separate three or more words of the same parts of speech.

Noun: I saw Bukola, Susan, Bayo and Dayo.

Verb: I wrote, read, examined and put aside the document, 

Adjective: Bukola is beautiful, attractive, rich and polite.

Adverb: He explained the lesson very clearly, carefully, convincingly and effectively.

Note: (I) No comma is required before 'and', 

'Or', no comma is used.

Ex: You can send the letter by ordinary post or by registered post or by air mail.

She got angry with you and me, her mother and father.

(b) To mark off phrases in apposition

Ex: Azikiwe, the father of the nation, was a great freedom fighter.

Mother Theresa, a great social worker, was a kind woman.

(c) To mark off the nominative of address.

Ex: I tell you, Umar, I cannot forget you.

O God, give us strength and power.

(d) After adverbial phrases of absolute construction.

Ex: The weather being fine, we left the conference hall.

(e) Before and after an adjectival phrase formed with a participle.

Ex: Bukola, having completed her studies, decided to marry Bayo.

We, knowing all about her pride, praised our aunt and got permission to go on picnic.

Note: A defining phrase or clause should not be separated by a comma.

Ex: A girl wearing a white skirt came out of the theatre. I presented Bukola a bangle studded with diamonds.

A chain made or gold  was presented to her.

(f) To separate words/phrases/clauses inserted into the body of a sentence.

Ex: She, too, was partly blamed for the delay.

My mother did not, however, recover from her illness Bukola is, after all, a poor girl.

She has, contrary to my expectation, passed the test.

(g) To avoid the repetition of a verb.

Ex: I gave her a flower and him, a watch.

Bukola is an air hostess and Susan, a teacher.

(h) To separate a subordinate clause from the principal clause.

Ex: When she comes here, I shall ask her about it.

If you go to Abuja, please meet my sister.

(I) To separate co-ordinate clause in a compound sentence. 

Ex: Men may come, and men go, but I go on forever.

I came, saw, and conquered.

The crowd shouted, cheered, waved and laughed at the film actress.

The player gasped, panted and collapsed on the ground.

3. Semicolon: It marks a longer pause than a 'comma'.

(a) To separate the clauses of a compound sentence if they contain a comma.

Ex: My uncle is a poor, uneducated, honest, simple man; but I love him.

The brilliant, beautiful girl appeared on the stage and there was an unending applause.

(b) To separate sentences which are closely connected in thought.

Ex: As Caeser loved me, I weep for him;

As he was valiant, I honour him.

Reading maketh a full man; confidence a ready man; writing an exact man.

4. Colon: The colon marks a more complete pause than a 'semi-colon'.

(a) It is used to introduce a quotation.

Ex: john Keats says: A thing of beauty is a joy forever Aristotle said: Man is a social animal.

(b) To Introduce a list

Ex: The subject I like: History, Politics, Philosophy, Poetry and Music.

The poets I love most are: Toru Dutt, john Keats, Tagore, Wordsworth and Shelly.

(c) To introduce an explanation, a statement or a proposition. 

Ex: The reason for my delay in this: I did not get up early today.

5. Interrogation Mark:

(a) It is used after a direct question.

Ex: What are you doing here?

Have you ever been photographed?

Did you post the letter?

Note; No interrogation Mark is used after an indirect question.

Ex: She asked me when I was married.

He enquired whether she had any reply from her husband.

I wanted to know where she had gone.

(b) Interrogation Mark is not used after a polite request.

Ex: Would you mind telling me your name.

6. Exclamation Mark:

(a) It is used at the end of an exclamatory sentence and interjections expressing some sudden emotion.

Ex; What a beauty!

What a tragedy!

What a great victory!

How foolish of you to lend him money!

Alas! She has failed in life.

Hello! Good luck! Congratulations!

(b) it may be used after a short order.

Ex; Shut up!     Wait!

Stop there!       Write down!

Come here!      Look there!

7. Inverted Commas: There ate used to indicate speech.

Ex: Amaka said, "I have never seen a cruel person."

"I have nothing to speak further," he said.

Note: The words of each speaker should be given a separate paragraph.

Ex: "What is your name?" She asked.

"My name is Susan," I replied.

"What are you?"

"I am a teacher."

A. THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

Capital letters are used in the following cases:

1. At the beginning of a sentence

Ex: Prevention is better than cure.

Necessary is the mother of invention.

Something is better than nothing.

2. At the beginning of each line in poetry.

Ex: My days among the dead are past.

When I am dead, my dearest.

Sing no sad song for me;

Sunset and evening star,

And one clear call for me,

3. For names of people, places, mountains, rivers.

Ex: Azikiwe, Mother Theresa, Abuja,Kaduna, The Himalayas, River Niger.

4. For nations and adjectives indicating nationality.

Ex: Nigeria, Nigerian, American, Canada, Canadian

5. For names of days, months, festivals and historical eras.

Ex: Monday, Sunday, December, November, New Yam Festival, The Middle Ages, the Romantic period, The French Revolution, the Nigerian Freedom Struggle, The Republic day, The independence Day.

6. For names of books, plays, works at art.

Ex: The Quran, The Bible, The Dictionary, Paradise Lost, The Mona Lisa, The Tempest, As You like it, King Lear.

7. For title of people and names of things when we refer to unique examples.

Ex: The king of England, The president of Nigeria, The Emperor of China, The Governor of Imo state, The Golden Fleece, The Eternal City.

8. For all adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Ex: Muslim, Christian, Himalayan, Herculean, Nigerian.

9. For all nouns and pronouns standing for God.

Ex: The Lord, The Trinity, Elohim.

10. The pronoun '1' and the interjection 'O'

VERB PATTERNS

pattern-1

S. No.	Subject	Verb
1.	Bird	fly.
2.	Fire	burns.
3.	Abba	is waiting.
4.	Kausar	is walking.
5.	The earth	moves round the sun
6.	The calling bell	has rung.

Pattern-2 

S. No.	Subject	Verb	Subject Complement
1.	This	is	a book.
2.	His sister	became	a nurse
3.	It	is	I.
4.	That house	is	mine.
5.	Hafsat	looks	attractive.
6.	My mother	grew	angry.

Pattern-3

S. No.	Subject	Verb	Direct Object
1.	1	know	his name.
2.	Minat	has lost	her hand bag.
3.	Amina	shut	the window.
4.	Who	wrote	the letter.
5.	You	must behave	yourself.
6.	We	should help	the needy.
7	Mr. Nass	has learnt	music.

Pattern-4

Subject	Verb	Indirect Object	Direct Object
I	lent	Diny	my dictionary.
Amaka	gave	me	a book
We	have paid	her	the money.
He	told	me	everything.
	Show	me	your house
You	must tell	me	the truth

Pattern-5

Subject	Direct Object	Preposition	Prepositional Object
I	lent	my dictionary	>to	Munirat.
Amaka	gave	a book	to	me
He	said	everything	to	me.
We	have paid	the money	to	her.
	show	your house	to	me.
you	must tell	the truth	to	me.

Pattern-6

Subject	Verb	Noun/ Pronoun	Adjective
Bayo	pushed	the door	open.
He	beats	it	flat.
Auwal	washed	my shirt	clean.
He	broke	the box	open.
I	turned	the light	low.
I	like	my milk	hot.
We	found	the streets	noisy.

Pattern-7

Subject	Verb	Preposition	prepositional object
I	am waiting	for	Ahmad.
Bilya	agreed	to	my proposal.
You	can't bank	on	his help.
these books	belong	to	me.
My uncle	had	an	accident.
She	complained	of	delay in payment
He	failed	in	his attempt.

Pattern-8

Subject	Verb	To infinitive Object of the verb
I	want	to stay.
Amaka	forgot	to boil the milk
He	fears	to speak with others.
We	intend	to visit Lagos.
Hafsat	intends	to marry early.
we	decided	not to go there.

pattern-9

Subject	Verb	Noun/pronoun	To infinitive
I	should like	you	to apply foe the post.
We	requested	her	to help us.
He	helped	me	to complete the work.
I	advised	Munir	to improve his English.
The doctor	ordered	her	to sleep early.
He	warned	her	not to type incorrectly.

Pattern-10

Subject	Verb	Gerund
I	began	writing.
She	has finished	typing.
I	hate	playing chess.
You	mustn't miss	watching the film.
Abbas	loves	teaching.
We	enjoy	reading novels.
I	suggested	sending a telegram

Pattern-11

Subject	Verb	Noun/Pronoun	Present Participle
I	Saw	Nana	crossing the road.
we	smell	something	burning.
We	noticed	the policemen	marching in the pitch.
I	caught	her	reading my dairy.
We	found	him	sitting in the garden.
We	found	him	Sitting in the garden.
Amaka	kept	the milk	boiling.

Pattern-12

Subject	Verb	Noun/Pronoun	Plain infinitive
I	saw	Idris	enter the room.
Faisal	watched	me	read the novel.
We	heard	him	talk with her.
I	felt	her	touch my hand.
-	Let	me	teach.
We	made	him	do well.
She	bade	the boy	leave the house.

Pattern-13

Subject	Verb	Noun/Pronoun	Past Participle
I	heard	my name	published.
She	felt	herself	lifted up.
You	must get	that rubbish	thrown out.
She	had	her clothes	washed.
We	found	the theatre	deserted.
I	want	my book	published.

Pattern-14

Subject	Verb	Noun/Pronoun	To be Complement
I	consider	Amina	a beauty queen.
We	thought	her	very intelligent.
people	supposed	him	(to be) a great leader.
They	reported	the situation	tense.
The club	chose	her	president.
The court	appointed	him	guadian of the girl.

Pattern-15

Subject	Verb	that Clause
I	suppose	that she is a teacher.
I	expect	that he will help me.
We	hoped	That she should be married
He	says	that he has known my brother.
My uncle	said	that he was unhappy.
Auwal	suggested	that i should complete the book.

pattern-16

Subject	Verb	Noun/Pronoun	That Clause
She	told	me	that she was upset.
I	warned	him	that there were snakes in the forest.
Amaka	has assured	me	that she is ready to come with me.
Maina	promised	us	that she would come again.
We	have informed	him	that we are
He	satisfied	me	that he could help me when i need money.

Pattern-17

Subject	Verb	interrogative+Clause
I	asked	where he was going.
No one	knows	where Amina has gone.
I	wonder	what she writes in that book.
She	Showed	how clever she was.
We	could not decide	what we should bring from Abuja.
I	could not decide	what we should bring from Abuja.
I	could not imagine	why she stopped talking to me.

Pattern-18

Subject	Verb	Noun/pronoun	interrogative +Clause
Bukola	asked	me	where i had gone.
	Tell	us	when you came back.
I	showed	her	how i should fill up blanks.
	inform	me	where i should buy the rice.
	Advise	me	how i should buy the rice.

Pattern-19

Subject	Verb	Interrogative+To Infinitive
I	don't know	ho to teach her English.
I	wonder	where to wait for my friend.
Ameera	knows	how to make me happy.
He	forgot	what to write to his wife.
She	could not decide	when to marry.
We	must find out	where to build the house.

Pattern-20

Subject	Verb	Noun/Pronoun	Interrogative+Pronoun
I	shall show	you	how to operate it.
She	has taught	me	how to do it.
They	informed	us	where to go in summer.
	Advise	me	what to buy for him.
	Tell	us	how to answer.
I	asked	him	where to take him.

Pattern-21

There + Be	Subject
There is	a flower in the garden.
There is	a theatre near our house.
There is	a post office beside the bus-stop.
there are	seven days in a week.
There are	plenty of books in the college library.
There was	someone at the gate.

Pattern-22

Subject +	Verb	Adjective	To Infinitive
We	were	very happy	to see our uncle.
Amina	is	afraid	to speak with her father.
I	am	eager	to see Mina.
I	shall be	glad	to know her name
He	was	anxious	to see his wife.
They	are	impatient	to wait further.

Pattern-23

It +	Be	Adjective Pronoun	Of + Noun	To Infinitive
It	was	kind	of Eno	to look after me.
It	was	clever	of him	to do it easily.
It	was	careless	of me	to forget the address.
It	is	unwise	of Abba	to believe him.
It	was	foolish	of him	to argue with her.

Pattern-24

Subject	+ Verb	Adjective	To Infinitive
The poem	is	easy	To understand.
The question	is	difficult	to answer.
Her mind	is	impossible	to understand.
Your words	are	hard	to believe.
Her medicine	is	bitter	to Swallow.

Pattern-25

It +	Be	Adjective +	To Infinitive
It	is	easy	to advise others.
It	will be	difficult	to teach mathematics.
It	is	bad	to abuse others.
It	is	cruel	to beat up children like that.
It	was	impossible	to make Amaka happy.

Pattern-26

It + Be	Gerundial phrase (Gerund)
It is no good	waiting for help.
It was no good	reading such novels.
It is no use	thinking about our past
It is use	thinking about our past.
It is worth	reading education books
It is worth while	Improving your mental ability.
It is amusing	playing with children.

Pattern-27

It	+ Be	Adjective Noun	Noun Clause
It	is	strange	That he should talk like that.
It	is	likely	that she will be here soon.
It	is	possible	that she doesn't marry in life.
It	is	doubtful	whether the meeting takes place.
It	was	fortunate	that she was rescued.
It	is	a pity	that Amaka failed in the exam.

Pattern-28

It	+ To take	Time phrase	To Infinitive
It	took me	twenty minutes	to reach the theatre.
It	will take you	only ten minutes	to walk to the bus-stop.
It	will take us	twenty days	to deliver the goods.
It	took me	one year	to prepare the grammer text.
It	has taken her	two hours	to type the letters.

Pattern-29

Subject	+ Verb	Too + Adjective/ Adverb	To infinitive
She	is	too foolish	to believe his words.
I	am	too lazy	to do anything
He	walks	too proud	to greet me.
He	is	too busy	to talk to me
Abbas	loves	teaching.
We	enjoy	reading novels.

Pattern-30

Subject	+ Verb	Adjective/Adverb + Enough	To Infinitive
Amaka	is	clever enough	to understand the. poem.
She	walked	fast enough	to follow him.
I	tired	hard	enough
I	am	foolish enough	to waste my time.
You	are	kind enough	to convince her.

Pattern-31

Subject	+ Verb	so + Adjective	That Clause
The book	is	so difficult	That i can't understand anything.
It	is	so dark	that i can't see anything.
She	talks	so fast	that i can hardly follow her.
It	was	so late	that we couldn't reach in time.
Amaka	was	so angry	that she could hear nothing.
I	was	so tired	that i could write nothing.

Pattern-32

What	a beautiful girl	Bukola is!
What	a lovely flower	it is!
What	an excellent idea
What	a great victory!
What	a nice man	you are!
What	a handsome face	he has!

pattern-33

How +	Adjective/Adverb	Subject	+ Verb
How	intelligent	Ahmad	is!
How	blue	the sky	is!
How	kind	you	are!
How	hard	you	have tried
What	gracefully	Abba	walks!
How	happily	the day	has passed!

pattern-34

Subject	Verb	Object	past participle
I	must have	the letter	typed.
I	must get	my tape recorder	repaired.
Aminu	had	her sister	trained as a nurse.
Aminat	got	her letter	written.
Eno	had	her skirt	ironed.
Susan	got	her house	built.

Pattern–35

Subject	+Present perfect	Object	Adverbials
Have	you ever seen	the museum?
Have	you met Amaka	this	morning?
Have	you received	any letter	today?
I	have never loved	anyone	before.
Maryam	has endured	his cruelty	for two years.
Bukola	has not returned	the book	till now.

pattern-36

Subject	+ Present Perfect	Adverbials
We	have lived	in Akure since 1980.
Hajiya	has stayed	with me for two weeks.
i	have worked	in the office for 3 years.
Amaka	has slept	for a long time.
Susan	has talked	to me till now.

Pattern-37

Principal Clause	Conjunction	Subordinate Clause
I will not marry	Until	I have got a job.
She will return The book	after	She has read it thoroughly.
She will not be promoted	before	she has passed the test.
i understand	that	Bayo has loved me deeply.
You can go	if	you have completed the work.

Pattern-38

Subject	has been knitting	a sweater	for her daughter.
Scientists	have been trying		to better human life.
Nigeria	has been producing	the talented	for the world.
The press	has been plyaing	a vital role	for world peace.
I	have been teaching	English	to students.

Pattern-39

past Perfect Tense	Past Tense
The president had visited job	before he went to Lagos.
We had reached the theatre	before the ticket were issued.
The sun had set	by the time we reached to village.
Susan had already slept	when i visited her.
The sun had set	by the time we reached the village.
Susan had already slept	When i visited her.
I had met Abba	before she was married.
Amaka has passed her degree	before her father retired.

Pattern-40 Conditionals
Type-1 Open Condition

S. If Clause	Main Clause
No. Simple present	Will/Shall/Can/May + Plain Infinite
1. If you work hard	you will get a promotion
2. If it rains	the streets will be daily.
3. If i know her name	I shall tell you.
4. If she spends all the money	she will have nothing to spend.
5. If you finish the work	you may go now.
6. If she comes here	I may ask her about it.

Type-II improbable ot imaginary Condition

S. If Clause	Main Clause
No. Past Tense	Would/Could/Should Might + Plain Infinive
1. If you helped her	she would be happy.
2. If i were you	I should accept the offer.
3. If you were a beaity queen	we could stay in it.
if you were a beauty queen	if he took the medicine	he might feel better.
If i had diploma	I could get a job.

Type-III Unfulfilled Condition

S. If Clause	Main Clause
No. Past Perfect	Would/Should/Could Might + Perfect Infinitive
1. If you walked faster	You could have arrived in time.
2. If you had written the latter	you could have posted it.
If she had asked me	i could have given the money.
If you had applied earlier	you could have got the job.
If he had married her	he would have been happy.	If i had seen her	I should have talked to her.

Pattern-41

Subject	+B+Going	To infinitive
The rain	is going	to continue.
the water problem	is going	to become more complicated.
It	is going	to snow all day.
The winter	is going	to be very cold this week.
Her condition	is going	to be more serious than the doctor thought.
I	am going	to explain my problem.

Pattern-42

Definite Article + Comparative Adjective	Subject + Verb	Definite Article Comparative Adjective	Subject + Verb
The more	I see Bukola	the more	I like her.
The more	he teaches	the less	i understand
The older	we grow	the weaker	we become.
The more	he earns	the less	he spends.
The deeper	we dive	the more dangerous	It will be.

Pattern-43

Subject	+Verb	Preposition	Gerund
He	earns money	by	teaching.
You	can go there	by	asking permission
Amaka	is clever	at	writing letters.
Amina	is fond	of	watching television
Are you	interested	in	reading novels?

Pattern-44

Subject	Verb	To Infinitive
I	awoke one day	to know of Udoka's death.
2. My dreams	vanished	never to return.
Computers	have come	to stay.
The patient	awoke	to find himself on the bed.
The poor girl	awoke	to find her parents gone.
Titi	trusted him	only to know that love is blind.

Pattern-45

What	a beautiful girl	Bukola is!
Subject	Verb	To infinitive
The members	are	to meet on April 15
Abba and i	are	to settle in Canada.
Lanre and i	are	to be married the next year.
I	am	to tell you that you are very brilliant.
baby	was	never to be again.

Pattern-46

It+Verb	Subject	Infinitive Phrase/Gerund/Clause
It seemed	strange	to see Susan with her.
It doesn't seem	much need	trying to win her affection.
It seems	a pity	that she has lost her only daughter.
it appears	possible	that it may rain.
It looked	doubtful	whether she would come.
it appeared	unwise	to teach him maths
it seems	selfish	to have all the money for yourself.
It looks	inproper	to speak like that.

Pattern-47

it	Verb	Clause
It	doesn't matter	whether he helps or not.
It	is stated here	that the workers must be paid.
It	was not required	that the house should be demolished.
It	will be sufficient	if they sign the bond.
it	is certain	that i will succeed in life.
it	may not be desirable	that you should consult an eye specialist.

Pattern-48

There	Verb	Subject
There	seems to be	some enmity between the two friends.
There	was	a problem in the car engine.
There	happened to be	nobody to look after the child.
There	arose	a dispute about the ownership of the factory.
There	fell	an apple from the tree.
There	grew	friendly relation between the two countries.
There	spread	a rumour that she ran away with some body.

Pattern-50

Subject	Verb	Subject Complement
He	remained	a celibate.
Bukola	looks	attractive.
This	appears	the right decision.
The audience	turned	agitated and excited.
That	souds	unnatural.
i	felt	dissatisfied and displeased.
Amaka	went	abroad.
they	ran	very quickly.

Pattern-51

Subject	Verb	Particle	Object
The Governor	gave	away	the dagree.
He	put	on	a sense of day.
What	will not throw	away	the old books.
He	had to give	up	smoking.
She	brushed	aside	the marriage proposal.
They	called	in	the fan technician.
I	put	out	the candle.