Techniques and instructions for data collection

(1)  INTERVIEW

MEANING OF INTERVIEW

         

Interview is a face to face interaction in which one person (the interviewer) ask another person (the interviewee) question which are responded to orally. Interviews permit the researcher to obtain direct first hand information about a persons

knowledge, his values and preferences, his experiences as well as his attitudes and beliefs. Interview questions should be designed bearing the objectives of the study in mind.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

An interview could structured or unstructured

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

       This is rigid standardized and very formal. The same questions are presented to various respondents. The respondent is made to choose his response from a list of alternative responses provided by the interview because the standardized approach permits scientific generalization to be made from the data obtained. A major disadvantage of structured interview is that its rigid nature prevents a researcher from probing in sufficient depth.

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

         This is very flexible and few restrictions are placed on a respondents are encouraged to express

FOCUSED INTERVIEW

         This is a situation when the respondent is asked to focus his attention on a particular event or experience. Before the interview, the interviewer prepares the appropriate questions to serve as the basis for the discussion. And during the interview, the discussion is limited to the ore-determined relevant issues. The respondent is allowed to express himself. freely and competently but along the line outlined by the interviewer.

(2) QUESTIONNAIRE

MEANING AND FEATURES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

        A questionnaire is form containing one or more question on an issue or problem which requires an individual to indicate his opinion or attitude or feelings towards resolving the issue or finding solutions to the problem by completing the form himself following guided instructions. The questions contained in the questionnaire are also called question items. As you can notice, this definitions brings out some of the features of the questionnaire. These include the following: 

• It is a form which means that the question or items are presented to the respondent on a sheet of paper (hand in hand or printed) and not verbally or otherwise).

• There may be one or more items. A questions may contain only one items or as many as 50 or note items depending on how broad or narrow is the issue on which the researcher is seeking information.

• The information being sought has to do with opinion, feeling, attitudes, perception or such information that is non-cognitive.

• The information is put down in writing by the respondent himself or his assistant and not by the researcher as the case of interview.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

        There are many ways of classifying the questionnaire Here we shall classify the questionnaire in terms of the types of response required. On this basis, we can talk of two types of questionnaire namely, the fixed response questionnaire and the open ended questionnaire.

FIXED - RESPONSE QUESTIONNAIRE

         In the fixed - response questionnaire the respondents is provide some alternative responses from which he is expected to select the one that applies to his opinion, feelings or attitude this means that his response is restricted to only those option provided in the questionnaire. The respondent is therefore not free to choose and organize his own responses. An example of a fixed - response questionnaire is given below;

Example: 

       section A of the questionnaire items in tale 1.1 seeks to elicit information on the respondent's perception of the operation of continuous assessment.

Table 1.1 Fixed Response Questionnaire

Instruction: Tick right ( ) in the appropriate box to indicate your response.

Section 'A'

(1)    Type of school

         All male ( )

         All female ( )

(2)    Sex of Respondent: Male ( ) Female ( )

(3).   Age of Respondent: Below 20 years ( ),             20-30 ( ), 

         Above 30 ( )

(4).    Qualifications

          TCII            ( )

          NCE.           ( )

          B.DC/B.A/B Ed ( )

          M.ED.         ( )

          Ph.D.         ( )

SECTION 'S' 

(5) Which f these materials are available for implementing continuous assessment in your school?

          

• Calculators. ( )       
• Progress chart ( )
• Cumulative Report card ( )
• Folders ( )
• Dossier ( )

(6) which of the following techniques do you use in continuous assessment in your school?

• Periodic tests ( )
• End of term examination ( )
• Observation ( )
• Projects ( )
• Questionnaire ( )

(7) How often do you use each of these techniques.

• Very often ( ) 
• Often ( )
• Occasionally ( )
• Rarely ( )
• Never ( )

This type of questionnaire has some advantages some of which are listed below.

1. It is easy to complete. To complete a fixed response questionnaire is not a difficult task. Eve' people with limited education or language problem can complete this type of questionnaire easily.
2. It is time saving on the part of the respondent. The respondent requires less time to complete this types of questionnaire which in most eases requires only ticking or marking X in the appropriate box. Because of its simplicity, many people will be more willing to complete a- I return this type of questionnaire.
3. Since the responses are already arranged in specific categories, coding and quantification will be easier. This facilitates the analysis of the data collected.

The disadvantages associated with this type of questionnaire include the following:

1. The researcher may not be able to solicit or obtain all the possible responses to an item. The researcher may not know all his respondents very well. He may therefore not be in a position to know the various responses possible in the situation.
2. The fixed response questionnaire does not give the researcher the benefit of obtaining additional or extra information from the respondents. The respondent is not allowed to supply any information outside the options provided. This denies the researcher the opportunity of getting extra information could be very useful in throwing more light on the issue or serve the purpose of drawing the researcher's attention to some important about.
3. It is difficult and time consuming to wrtte fixed response questionnaire items. To write fixed response times, you have to think of the relevant response options. This is demanding in terms of time and mental effort.
4. This type of questionnaire could lead to what is called response set. Since responding to this type of questionnaire items does not require thinking on the part of the respondent there is the tendency for the respondent to give the same pattern of response to all the items without caring whether the items require different response pattern or not.

OPEN - END QUESTIONNAIRE

         in the open - end questionnaire, no response alternatives are responses in any way he considers appropriate. He is not therefore restricted to any set of "response predetermined by the researcher. Spaces are provided for the respondent to supply his responses. Examples of open end questionnaire items are given below. Section A of the questionnaire seeks to elicit information on relevant personal data of the respondent while section B seeks to elicit information on the respondent's perception of the operation of continuous assessment.

Table 1.2: Open - End questionnaire

SECTION 'A'

1. Type of School.......................,........................
2. Sex of respondent.........................................
3. Age of respondent.............................,...........
4. Qualification...................................................

SECTION 'B'

list below the materials that are available for implementing continuous assessment in your school.

1. ............................................................................
2. ............................................................................

Enumerate some of the techniques you use in Continuous Assessment in your school.

1. ............................................................................
2. ...........................................................................
3. ...........................................................................

How often do you use each of the techniques?

ADVANTAGES

Advantages of the open - end questionnaire include the following

1. It affords the researcher the opportunity of obtaining additional information from the respondent. The respondent is free to give any response to any question. In so doing he may provide additional information which the research did not anticipate. Such information may help the researcher understand better the problem under investigation. 
2. It is easy and time - saving to construct the researcher only writes the question without bothering to provide possible responses.

DISADVANTAGES.

          Some of the disadvantages of the open -end questionnaure include the following.

• It is difficult and time - consuming to complete by the respondent. To write down open end responses could be a difficult and  time consuming task to the respondent. Respondents who are busy may not be willing to complete this type of questionnaire.
• It requires the ability of the respondent to communicate effectively. Respondents who can not express themselves clearly will have problem in completing the open-end questionnaire.
• Coding and quantification of data are very difficult. Several respondents may give various responses. To code or quantify these response poses a big research problem and this makes the analysis of such data cumbersome.

STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

              In constructing the questionnaire, the steps you will be following include these:

• You should identify and state the purpose of the questionnaire in doing so you should be guided by the information you want to obtain with the questionnaire. The information required should be clear in your mind to prevent you from constructing a questionnaire that will' provide information you may not require.
• You should decide on what type of questionnaire to construct out of two types of questionnaire, the fixed response and the open - end types.
• The next step is to start the actual writing of the items. In writing the items, you should consider the following: 

1. Use clear and simple expressions.
2. Do not write items which are not related to the purpose of the questionnaire. Any item not related to the purpose of the questionnaire should be deleted if it has been written.
3. Do not use leading or suggestive questions. There are some questions which tell the respondent the way the researcher will want him to respondent. Such questions do not give accurate or authentic information. An example of a leading question is 'Don't you think that teaching of primary science in the language of the immediate community will not work in a society such as ours?"

This question clearly suggests to the respondent the direction in which the researcher wants him to respond the question could have been framed thus: "What do you think about the workability of the government's policy n the teaching of primary science in the language.

• The next stem is for you to validate the question. To validate the instrument, you should present the items to two or more experts. The experts should be requested to look at the items in terms of the purpose they are expected to accomplish; the clarity and language of the items, you could determine what modification what modification to make.
• When you. have modified the items in line with the carry and suggestions of the experts, you should carry out pilot testing of the items. This mean giving the questionnaire to a few people (about 50) that qualify as respondents for whom the questionnaire is being developed. The reason for this is to determine whether they have any difficulties in responding to the questions. The information you obtain from the pilot testing will assist you in making further modification where necessary.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

          There are two types of questionnaire administration. These are on the spot (or face to face) and by mail.

On-the-spot ( or face to face). in this type or questionnare administration the researcher or his assistant Carries copies of the questionnaire to the respondents wherever they are staying. Each respondents is given a copy of the questionnaire to complete. The researcher or his assistant explains thee questionnaires to the respondent. The respondent either complete the questionnaire immediately (on-the-spot) or squest the researcher to come back later for the questionnaire.

DISADVANTAGES

           The disadvantages of this type of questionnaire administration include the following.

1. It is time-consuming. Administering the questionnaire face to face takes a lot of 'me' researcher's time. He has to move from place to get his respondents. 
2. It is expensive. This mode of questionnaire administration is costly, particularly where the respondents are located many kilometers apart the researcher has to travel to all the places where his respondents are located in order to administer the questionnaire to them.
3. The presence of the researcher denies the respondent any privacy during the completion of the questionnaire. This may likely cause the respondent to hold back some information or give false or incomplete information.

ADMINISTRATION THE QUESTIONNAIRE BY MAIL

          This involves mailing or posting the questionnaire to the respondent. Usually, the questionnaire is accompanied by a letter which tries to explain. the purpose of the study and solicit the co-operation of the respondent. A self-addressed and stamped envelope is usually enclosed for returning the questionnaire to the researcher in most cases, a follow - up latter in which another copy of the questionnaire and a self addressed and stamped envelop is sent to ensure that a replay is expected from the respondent and urgently too. Such letters could be sent more than once particularly f the percentage return is still less than 70%. This mode of questionnaire administration has some advantage.

ADVANTAGES

         The advantage if this type of questionnaire administration as follows:

1. It is cheap the cost of obtaining data from respondents in difference part of the state or country using this method of questionnaire administration is less than the cost of obtaining the samz data using on the-spot administration.
2. The respondent has the opportunity of completing the questionnaire in his privacy and at tomes convenience. He can freely give out any information since his identify may not be known.
3. A high Percentage return of the copies of the questionnaire is guaranteed.
4. There is a degree of certainty of the actual person who completed questionnaire.
5. The researcher or his assistant will be available to the question to the respondents, which will lead to the correct supply of informati

DISADVANTAGES

          Some of the disadvantages of this type of questionnaire administration include the following.

1. A low percentage return of the copies of the questionnaire may be expected. The researcher may not receive back all the copies of the questionnaire he sent out.
2. There are may be an uncertainty of the actual person who completed the questionnaire . the actual person to whom the questionnaire was sent may give it to another person to complete for him.
3. There may be some difficulty in getting the correct posted address of some of the respondents. This implies that the researcher cannot collect data for such respondents.
4. There also, may be nobody on the stop to explain the question to the respondents hence the respondents may understand the questions differently. This could lead to wrong supply of information.

HOW TO OBTAIN RELIABLE DATA WHILE USING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

           for a reliable data to be obtained from the questionnaire you should ensure the following: 

1. The instructions and items on the questionnaire are clear and easy to understand. You should use simple and easy for understand expression in writing the instructions and items.
2. The questionnaire is neither to be too long nor too short if the questionnaire contains too many questions, the respondent may be bored. If such a situation occurs, the respondent is likely to give you undependable information. In the same way, if there are very few questions, the information collected will be too scanty and may therefore not be dependable.
3. The respondent is anonymous, The respondent should be asked not to give out his identify. This will give him the confidence to respond accurately to the questions.
4. The actual respondent completes the questionnaire himself. The respondent should no give the questionnaire to another person to complete. such a person may not give the same response the respondent would have given.

OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES MEANING AND TYPES OF OBSERVATION

Meaning: Observation is the act of watching individuals, events or situations in a systematic manner in oder to obtain information about specific characteristics of such individuals events or situation. The main purpose of the individuals or characteristics of the events the way they are in nature. By so doing, observation helps you to collect first hand information. As mentioned before there are some behaviors which the individual can only show in a situations that calls for such behaviors. Such behaviors include neatness, honesty and respect collecting data about behaviors requires observation. 

Types of Observation: there are two types of observation, namely 

• participant observation 
• Non-participant observation

Participant observation: in participant observation, the observer is part of the situation or setting in which the observation is taking place. He may be a regular member of the system or group being observed or he may join the group or system for the sole of purpose of conducting the observation. This is done in order that the individuals being observed do not know that they are being observed or become suspicious of the researcher's motives.

Non-participant Observation: The observer in this case is not part of the situation in which the observation is taking place. He does not belong to the group being observed .He may be seen by the group as a stranger or foreigner. This can ruse suspicious in the minds of the group and affect their behaviors.

INSTRUCTIONS USED IN OBSERVATION

        The conduct of an observation requires the use of an instrument. This will ensure that your observation is systematic and that all the data you require are collected. There are two such instructions the checklist and the rating scan.

The Checklist: The checklist contains those attributes or items which the researcher was to observe and a provision to indicate whether or not the attributes or items are present. It can only reveal that attributes or items is present. An example of a checklist is given below.

Table 1. A checklist for observing Teacher's Classroom Behaviors.

Instructions: Tick "X" against any of the following teacher behaviors which occurs in the classroom.

• Cheerful. ( )
• Informal  ( )
• Asks questions ( )
• Praises student who give correct answers ( )

The Rating Scale: The rating scale is almost like the checklist the only difference is that in the checklist you indicate the extent or degree to which the attribute or item is present. It comprises a list of the observer indicates the extent or degree to which the attribute or item is present. Therefore, the rating scale does not just show whether an attribute or item is present or not. It shows the amount of attribute or items that is present. Table 2 gives you an example of rating scale.

Table 2.  A Rating Scale for Observing Teachers Classroom Behavior.

Instruction: indicate how frequently the following teacher behaviors occur in the classroom by tucking in the appropriate column.

Teacher Behavior Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never

• Cheerful
• Informal
• Ask questions
• Praise students

Who give correct answers.

GUIDELINES IN CONDUCTING OBSERVATION

1. You should try as much as possible not to interfere with or destruct the natural setting in which the observation is taking place. This can be achieved by using the participant observation method.
2. Do not allow the group being observed to notice or be aware that are being observed. If they are aware, they are likely to behave in an unnatural way. To achieve this, use the participant observation method or a device that will make it possible to observe what is happening without being noticed.
3. You should make a list of the relevant attributes, or items which you want to observe. This list which should be either in the form of a checklist or rating scale should guide you as to what you should look for and what you should avoid. This makes your observation systematic and objective.
4. When you go out observe a group of people, do not record the initial behaviors. This is because your presence may cause the group to behave in an unnatural way initially. After sometimes, the group will overcome the influence of the observer and return to their normal way of behaving.
5. Ensure that each behavior is recorded as soon as it is observed. Do not wait until after the Observation is complete before you record the behaviors. This is likely to lead to errors in recording arising from forgetting.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE

Observation as a technique for data collection has some advantages and disadvantages.

ADVANTAGES

1. It enable the researcher to watch and describe behaviors in their natural setting.
2. It gives the researcher first hand information about the behaviors being assessed.
3. It makes possible the assessment of behaviors which can not be assessed through any other techniques.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It can not be assesses those behaviors that can not be seen.
2. It is consuming. When you have too many people to observe, a lot of time and money will be involved.
3. With the present of the researcher, the people being observed are likely to fake their behavior

WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSALS AND RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

          A proposal is an account of what a researcher intends to do and how he intends to do this. It is common for students to present a proposal to their departments or supervisors before they can be allowed to go ahead with the investigation. Funding agencies usually require detailed proposals before they can offer a grant to a researcher. The importance of a proposal is obvious. It helps the researcher. To have a proper perspective on what is visualize, ahead of time, the major difficulties, the workability of some techniques, the cost and other involvements in the study.

SECTION OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal comprises the following sections:

• Introduction
• Background to the study
• Statement of the problem
• Purpose of the study
• Research questions and or Hypothesis
• Assumption (If any)
• Significance of the study
• Scope of the study
• Definition of terms (if any)
• Review of related literature
• Research methodology
• Introduction
• Research design
• Population 
• Sample and sampling technique
• Instructions for Data Collection
• Validation of instrument
• Method of Data Collection
• Method if data Analysis 

In writing a proposal, it is important to remember that since the actual work is yet to be executed, the tense should be futuristic.

RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

         The research project report is usually presented following a particular format. The format varies from place to place and from discipline to discipline. The format presented in this chapter is the one considered to be widely used in the field of education. Essentially, a research project report comprises three major sections. These are:

(a) The preliminaries (b) The Main Body (c) The appendix.

The preliminaries

          This is made up of:

• Title page
• Approval page
• Declaration
• Dedication
• Acknowledgement
• Table of content
• List of tables
• List of figures
• Abstract

Title page - carries information on the project, the program me (degree, diploma or certificate) for which the project is being undertaken, the department and the university/institution to which the report is being presented, the particulars of the student submitting the project, the month and year the project was submitted.

Approval page - makes provision for the signatures of the supervisor, the internal examiner, the external examiner, the head of the department and dean of the faculty.

Acknowledgment - is used to express gratitude and indebtedness to individuals, institution or organizations who provided one form of assistance or the other during the execution of the work.

Table of contents - the various elements, chapters of parts or the report and the pages where they appear are listed. Only the first pages are indicated.

Dedication - For every research work been conducted, the researcher tries to specially dedicate his/her work to individual or groups so dear to him/her. Some dedicate the research work to their loved ones which could be parents, wives or husband. 

List of tables and figures - Follows after the table of contents .

Abstract - is a very shirt account of the work. This short account gives an idea of the purpose of the work, brief description of the methodology the major findings of the study and recommendation raised in the study.

THE MAIN BODY OF THE WORK

         This section embodies the major area of the project. The materials of this section therefore usually arranged in five chapters. This includes:

Chapter 1: introduction

This chapter is arrange under the following sub sections...

1. Background to the study: Under this subsection, the researcher traces thz conditions and factors necessitating the study. Here, the researcher presents all materials which will help his reader understand the development if the problem under investigation. The essence is to provide the necessary background information that will show the reader the conditions, circumstances and factors that have given rise to the problem under investigation.
2. Statement of the problem: Having traced the development of the problem in the preceding subsection, the problem is now formulated and define in concise and precise terms. The statement of the problem can be stated in either a declaration or an interrogative form. In whichever form the problem is stated, the important thing is that it should be short (not exceeding half a quarto-sized page) and unambiguous.
3. Purpose of the study: This refers to what will be accomplish in the study. It represent a statement of the objectives of the study. This can be written as a general statement of what the researcher intends to accomplish which is then down to specific statements of objectives. In doing this, it is important to strike a balance, between specificity and generality. In other words, the objectives should not be too specific as to result in a long and unmanageable list of specific objectives not too general as not to sufficiently guide action. Effort is always made to avoid preambles or any materials that do not directly relate to the purpose of the study. Such materials are unnecessary and could bore the reader of the report.
4. Research Questions and/or Hypotheses: Research question refer to the major questions to which the researcher seeks to provide answers in the course of the investigation, while hypotheses refer to intelligent guesses or hunches which the researcher formulates to guide his search for the solution to the problem.
5. Assumption (if any): these are those conditions that must be met or satisfied for the results of the study to be valid. Usually these are not subjected to an empirical test but must be plausible enough to be considered tenable. One should not posit conditions that are hardly tenable as assumptions in any study. Assumptions need to be made in all studies. There are some studies which may not necessarily require assumptions. For such studies, this subsection becomes unnecessary.
6. Significance of the study: Tho can Al's be called the rationale or the importance of the study. It has to do with the major contributions the researcher hopes the work will make either to the theory or the practice of his field. This subsection is concerned with the usefulness of the findings of the study to mankind either in a theoretical or practical field. This provides the justification or rationale for under take the investigation. Indeed. This is a very important subsection of any project report since it tries to establish whether or not the work is of some value.
7. Scope (or Delimitation) of the study: it discusses the area of coverage of the study and the kind of respondents as well. Similarly, areas of literature to be reviewed would be flighlighted.
8. Definition of Terms: In tho subsection, terms or concepts whose meanings are not obvious in the context of the study are defined or explained. These include terms or concepts whose. meanings are not ordinarily known or which have been used in specialized sense in the study (I.e different from the ordinary sense). The definitions refer to the dictionary definitions. Operational definitions given to such terms are usually operational and not the dictionary definitions. Operational definitions given to such terms are usually operational and not the dictionary definitions. Operational definitions refer to the specialized sense in which those terms were used in the study that is different from their usually meanings. Where no such terms exist, this subsection is usually left out. As a matter of fact, the recent friend is not to make specific provision for this subsection anywhere in the write -up but to define any terms anywhere they occur first in the body of the report.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

This chapter discussed the review of all literature pertinent to the research theme usually organized under relevant subheadings.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This chapter comprises the following sub-sections:

1. Design: This relates to the general approach adopted in executing the study, What is required here is for the researcher to specify the type of the design followed in the study.
2. Area of Study: The area of study refers to the geographical location covered by the study which is usually stated in terms of the country, state, education, political or administrative zone, local government area, etc as the case may be.
3. Population: Here the researcher specifies the aggregate of items or persons from whom DAT pertinent to the st would be collected.
4. Sample and Samplinv procedure: The sample (I.e. that portion of the population from which data were actually collected) is defined here as well as how it was obtained including the instrument(s) used in collecting the data. Such a description should include how the instrument was developed and the major features of the instrument.
5. Instrument for Data Collection: This involves a description of the instrument (s) used in collecting the data. Such a description should include how the instrument was developed and the major features of the instrument. 
6. Validation of the Instrument: This describes the procedures adopted in ensuring that the instrument used has measured what it was designed to measure. It is very important to establish and report one form of validity or the other for the instrument. This enhances the strength of the work
7. Reliability of the Instrument: Reliability concerns the consistentcy with which an instrument measures whatever, it measure is supposed to. The method used I' establishing your instructions possess this quality of reliability, and the evidence in that respect should be reported.
8. Method of Data Collection: Here the researcher reports the steps taken to collect the pertinent data. This entails saying whether the data were collected by the researcher himself or with the help of field assistants or by mail, etc.
9. Method of data analysis: in this subsection, the researcher reports the statisticaltechniques or tools employed in analyzing the data.

Chapter 4: Result & Discussions

1. Results: Thus chapter embodies the results or findings of the study. These are usually presented to tables, figures and charts. The calculations involved in the analyses are not only been presented here. But the summaries of such analyses in the form of tables, But the summaries of such analyses in the form of tables, figures and charts are also presented in this chapter. Each table or figure should have a number and title. The number should be in Arabic numeral and in Roman numeral. For tables, the number and title should appear on the top of the table while for figures, the number and title should appear below the figure. It I usually advisable to present the result according to the research questions or hypotheses to which they relate.

Discussion of the findings: Here, the researcher tries to advance possible interpretations and explanations to his findings.

Chapter 5: Summary Conclusions and Recommendations 

This chapter which is the last chapter is comprised of :

1. Summaey: The researcher provides a summary of the entire work I.e brief account of the entire report covering chapters One-Four
2. Conclusion: The major findings that emerged from study should constitute the conclusion.
3. Recommendations: These are suggested actions whuch could be taken in the light of findings to bring aboutimprovements in the system or in the discipline.
4. Suggestion for the studies: it is said that solving one problem gives rise to other problems is therefore expected that the researcher should state those problems that have arisen out of the one he has investigated, for other people to investigate.
5. Implications of the findings: these relate to what the findings suggest either in terms of theory or practice. In other words. Implications of the findings relate to specific uses either (in the theoretical or the practical sphere) to which the findings can be put.
6. Limitations: These are those short comings in the design and execution of the project which would affect the generalizality of the findings.

Method of Analyzing Data: one of the method for analyzing data in a research project is the use of simple percentage (%) calculations which certain percent of students do not understand how to go about it. Percentage is the simplest of all the statistical methods used for data analysis. It cannot be done without first identifying the frequency count and then, can be transformed into percentage they at useful in the making of general statements about a given situation. The standard total of every percentage is One hundred 100. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

           The bibliography is considered part of the main body of the report. It is a list of the source which were made use of in preparing the study. The difference between bibliography and a reference is a list of all sources that were actually cited in the work. For students' project reports, it I common to use bibliography while for research articles, references is used.

APPENDIX

           This is the part of a research project report. It consists of all materials that are related to the report and which may be referred to for greater details but which are not suitable for inclusion in the main body of the report. Such materials include the instruments used, calculations, raw data, letters of introduction, etc.